Based on Nebel and Wright, Environmental Science 8th
Ed, @2000
1.Modern
civilization depends greatly on a number of energy sources.How have the three
primary fossil fuels been harnessed in recent history?
At the start of the
Industrial Revolution wood was used to fuel the steam engine.When wood
resources were depleted,coal was substituted.[This transition was not without
social and economic disruption.] The transition to coal was complete by the end
of the 1800s and the dominance of coal as a fuel did not end until the
1940s.Petroleum,primarily in the form of gasoline,has dominated since the
1940s.Currently,natural gas is increasing its share of the fossil fuel market
but it provides only 24%of the energy used in the U.S.
2.Much of the
total energy use is devoted to generating electrical power.How are fossil fuels
coupled to electrical power,and what are the major environmental impacts of the
processes involved?
Fossil fuels are used to
boil water to produce steam that turns the turbines of a
turbogenerator.Electricity is not a clean energy source if the fuel used to
produce the steam is not clean.If coal is used to produce the electricity,acid
deposition,greenhouse gas production,and other air pollution problems
result.Also one needs to consider environmental damage from coal mining and ash
disposal.If a dam is used to produce the
electricity,“creating
the dam and reservoir involves displacing people,farmland,and wildlife and
disrupts the migration of fish such as salmon.” If nuclear power is used to
boil water,,then the concerns are radioactive contamination of the environment
from accidents at the power plant and the disposal of the waste products.
Irrespective of the source of energy used to generate electricity,thermal
pollution results.Typically,waste
from a power plant is
transferred to a body of water.The local aquatic ecosystem would have one of
its limiting factors – temperature – altered..If the water is not released to a
local aquatic ecosystem,the resulting heat/evaporated water is transferred to
the atmosphere and may change local weather patterns.
3.What are the
major categories of primary energy use and the energy sources that match those
uses?How does an analysis of end-use energy demand help us design energy
supplies?
Primary energy use can
be divided into four categories:1)transportation,2)industrial processes,3)
commercial and residential uses (heating,cooling,lighting,and appliances),and
4)generation of electrical power.Transportation is almost completely dependent
upon petroleum while electricity is generated from coal,
waterpower,natural
gas,and nuclear.Commercial and residential users primarily depend upon natural
gas, electricity,and minor amounts of oil while industrial processes depend
upon oil,natural gas,and electricity.
An analysis of end-use
energy demand can help us design the most efficient energy system that would
result in extending our energy supplies.For example,using electricity to heat
water in a home or business is not very efficient.A fuel,e.g.,natural gas,has
already been used once to heat water to generate electricity.To use
the electricity to heat
water again is less efficient than if the natural gas is used to heat water in
homes and businesses.The same principle applies to using electricity to cook
food.
4.Crude oil is an
essential energy source for transportation.What are the reserves of this
resource,and how are they estimated?
The science of geology
provides information about the probable locations and quantities of crude oil.
“Geologists make educated guesses as to where oil or natural gas may be located
and how much may be found.” This guess is called the estimated reserve.After
exploratory drilling,a reasonable accurate estimate of the quantity of oil that
is economically obtainable can be determined.This is called proven reserves.“At
the
current price of crude
oil,about $14 per barrel,it is economical to extract no more than 35%of the oil
resources in a given field.”
Proven reserves are
approximately 850 billion barrels.The oil extraction peak will occur some time
within the next decade.
5.The United
States now imports more than 50%of the crude oil it uses.What lead to the
U.S.dependency on foreign oil?What are the problems of acquiring and shipping the
quantity of oil the United States needs?
Our increased dependence
on foreign oil has been partially caused by increased oil consumption.Increased
oil consumption has been partially a result of decreased oil prices.When oil
prices declined individuals had little incentive to conserve.We began
purchasing vehicles that consumed greater quantities of gasoline,driving
longer distances and
driving at faster speeds.The government standards for automobile fuel
efficiency remained at 27.5 miles per gallon and efforts to improve fuel
efficiency were ended.Another cause of our dependence on foreign oil has been
the decline in oil exploration and extraction.Both these activities declined
when the price of oil dropped.For economic and political reasons,tax incentive
and other subsidies for the development or installation of alternative energy
sources were ended.Federal incentives for conservation also ended. There are
several problems associated with acquiring and shipping oil from foreign
countries.The cost of purchase adversely affects our balance of trade.There are
potential ecological costs.While the Exxon Valdez was from domestically
produced oil in Alaska,the risk of oil spills from oil shipped from other
countries exists. A substantial portion of the foreign oil we consume comes
from a politically unstable region of the world – the Middle East.Last,but not
least,petroleum supplies are limited.
6.Oil shortages
and oil gluts have rocked the world economy in recent years.What are the
reasons for these violent shifts,and what are their long-term consequences?
There have been shifts
from oil shortages to oil gluts depending upon the known petroleum resources
and the price of oil.As the price of oil increases due to scarcity,the quantity
of oil the can be economically extracted increases.This produces an oil glut
because more oil is produced in response to the increased price.
The glut increases the
demand because prices drop.As prices drop,production drops because petroleum
cannot be economically extracted.The absolute limit on the availability of
petroleum and the environmental consequences of its use are not included in its
cost.We have violent swings in price and availability due to the responses of
the industry and public to changes in price.The long-term consequence of the
lack of energy use
planning will be the
more rapid consumption of irreplaceable oil reserves.
7.Coal and
natural gas are also import fossil fuels in the United States.How much of a
reserve of these resources is there in the world and how is that reserve
presently being put to use?
Current reserves of
natural gas in the United States estimated to last for close to 50 years.Most
natural gas is being used for space heating and cooking.In California,it is
used for transportation (buses and some cars) and electrical power
generation.Worldwide,the estimated natural gas resource base is even estimated
to be almost four times that of the energy equivalent of oil. Current reserves
of reserves of coal are estimated to last approximately 400 years.In the United
States most coal is being used for electrical power generation.[There is no
coal used to generate electricity in California due to severe air quality.]
8.Sustainable
energy options are clearly desirable for the development of a sustainable
future.What are some What are some options that will meet our needs for energy
with least economic and environmental consequences?
Conservation is the
single greatest source of energy available.It has the ability to reduce the
environmental consequences of all types of energy sources.If we double the fuel
efficiency of the automobile from 27.5 mpg to 55 mpg,we have halved the
environmental impact of driving the same number of miles.We have also doubled
the life span of our petroleum reserves used for transportation.Even something
as simple as carpooling
with one other person
doubles the fuel efficiency of the trip. Cogeneration is another way to
conserve.This technique can increase the efficiency of the energy conversion to
electricity from around 30%to as high as 50%. Other energy conservation
measures include insulation,double-pane windows,substitution of fluorescent
lights for incandescent lights,more efficient appliances,recycling and water
conservation.
1.Nuclear power
currently generates 20%of electricity in the United States,7%of energy
overall,yet it is controversial.What is the history and current status of
nuclear power in the United States?
Nuclear power originates
from the development of nuclear weapons.The US government was interested, after
World War II,in converting the technology developed for military purposes into
civilian uses.The belief was that the cost of generating electricity from
nuclear power would be so cheap that it could be used instead of
other forms of fuel.The
building of nuclear power plants did not begin until the US government limited
the legal liability of those corporations and utilities owning the power plants
(Price Anderson Act).Additionally,
the US government
assumed responsibility for all high-level nuclear waste generated by commercial
nuclear power plants.By the mid-1970s the future of nuclear power was no longer
rosy.Three bills were passed in California in 1976 halting future construction
of nuclear power plants unless the waste product problem was
solved. Thirty-three
nations have nuclear power plants in operation or under construction.There are
107 operating nuclear power plants in the United States.“Including the United
States,a world wide total of 442 nuclear plants is operating,with an additional
45 ‘under construction ’.”
2.The objective
of nuclear power technology is to use a controlled nuclear reaction to drive a
generator.How does a nuclear power plant work?
A nuclear power plant
boils water to make steam to turn a turbogenerator.The technology differs from
other (non-hydro)electrical generating plants in the source of the energy used
to boil water. Fission is used to produce the energy in a nuclear power
plant.“In fission,a large atom of one element is split to produce two smaller
atoms of different elements.” Uranium--235 is the heavy atom used in the
fission
process.A neutron hits
the nucleus of uranium-235,causing the release of neutrons and creating new
daughter elements.In a nuclear power plant the quantity and sped of neutrons is
controlled so the reaction rate is controlled.Control rods,inserted into the
reactor core,absorb neutrons,thereby controlling the rate of the
fission chain
reaction.The moderator slows the sped of neutrons.The heat generated from
fission is absorbed by water,usually in a double-loop system,and steam is
generated
3.In order to
understand the hazards of nuclear power,we must understand something about
radioactive materials.What are radioactive materials,and what hazards do they
pose?
Radioactive emissions
are the direct products of fission;they “are generally unstable isotopes of
their respective elements.” The “unstable isotopes become stable by ejecting
subatomic particles (alpha particles, beta particles,and neutrons),or
high-energy radiation (gamma rays),or both.” is necessary to isolate
radioactive substances for 20 half-lives,plutonium needs to be safely stored
for 480,000 years.No long-term disposal site exits.The site being developed by
the US government,Yucca Mountain,is
surrounded by a great
deal of controversy.Some of the concerns expressed about the Yucca Mountain
facility include nearby earthquake faults,a geologically active volcano and the
need to ship spent nuclear fuel across the country.[The vast majority of
nuclear power plants are in the eastern portion of the country while Yucca
Mountain is in Nevada.]
5.The other major
issue of great concern is the possibility of nuclear accidents in nuclear
plants.Of what significance are the Three Mile Island and Chornobyl ’ nuclear
accidents??
Both of these accidents
demonstrate the reasons for the concern about nuclear power.Even with the best
of intentions,humans are incapable of designing or implementing foolproof
systems.Chornobyl'was a reactor with a graphite moderator,while US plants use
water.The graphite moderator is explosive when it comes in contact with
water.US nuclear power plants also have a containment building while
Chornobyl'did not.While
the specific sequence of
events at Chornobyl ’ is impossible at a US nuclear power plant,,the human
error aspect can be repeated here.Three Mile Island was the most serious
accident in the US.The power plant suffered a
partial meltdown as a
result of human error,equipment failure and flawed design.The Rancho Seco
nuclear power plant in Sacramento,California had the same flawed design,which
had not been corrected completely before the voters closed the facility in
1989,ten years after the Three Mile Island accident.
6.Fusion-based
energy has long been considered a candidate for a pollution-free energy source
of the future. What is the prognosis for fusion-based energy?
“Developing,building,and
testing a fusion power plant would require at least another 20 to 30 years
(some say 50 years)and many more billions of dollars.Additional plants would
require additional years.Thus,fusion is,at best,a very long-term option.Many
scientists believe that fusion power will always be the elusive pot of
gold at the end of the
rainbow.The standard joke about fusion power is that it is the energy source of
the future,and always will be!”
7.In light of
current energy choices,nuclear power still appears to be an attractive
option.What future is there for nuclear power?
Nuclear power could
provide electricity yet large quantities of our energy needs are for a more
flexible fuel.For nuclear power to be a future power source concerns about
reactor safety would need to be addressed; advanced light water reactor designs
with built-in passive safety features should replace existing designs.The waste
dilemma must be resolved.The likelihood of the technical and political
obstacles being overcome is not
high. Exposure to
radiation increases the risk of cancer.Low doses of radiation may damage
DNA.Some people argue that there are doses of radiation below which there would
be no adverse effect because of the DNA repair mechanisms that exist.Others
argue that no safe level of exposure exists.High doses of radiation can block
cell division,resulting in death.
1.The total
amount of solar energy reaching Earth is enormous.What is the potential for harnessing
this energy?
The potential for solar
energy is tremendous.“Just 40 minutes of sunlight striking the land surface of
the United States yields the equivalent energy of a year ’s expenditure of
fossil fuels.If less than 1/10 of 1%of the earth ’s surface were dedicated to
solar energy collection,it could supply the electricity needs of the world.”
2.Solar
water-heating and space-heating systems for buildings represent well-developed
technologies.What is preventing the more widespread adoption of these forms of
solar heating?
The cost of solar water
and space heating reduces the chance that this technology will be adopted.A
passive solar home can add 5-10%to the cost of construction.It is also
necessary to install and maintain a back-up heating system. Additional reasons
for slow adoption of solar space and water heating include the lack of
familiarity with the technology and advertising campaigns that claim that solar
technology is impractical and cost-ineffective
.
3.Solar energy
via photovoltaic cells and solar-trough collectors is used to produce
electrical power.What are the current applications of these technologies,and
what is their promise for the future?
Photovoltaic cells are
common in pocket calculators,watches and toys.Photovoltaic cells are used to
provide power for homes,irrigation pumps,traffic signals,radio
transmitters,lighthouses,offshore oil-drilling platforms and other locations
that are distant from power lines.Future applications include home-sized
systems on rooftops.(This is being done in Sacramento,California.)
4.There is a
great need to develop solar energy sources that can be coupled to fuel for
transportation.What is the potential for fuel from solar hydrogen production?
“Conventional cars can
be run on hydrogen gas as a fuel in the same manner as they are now beginning
to be run on natural gas.” It has been suggested that solar energy by used to
split water molecules to obtain hydrogen atoms.It is also has been suggested
that hydrogen could be used in fuel cells to produce electricity and this
energy be used to power a vehicle ’s motors.
5.Water,fire,and
wind have provided energy for centuries.What are sustainable ways of expanding
these options in the near future?
One of the most
sustainable ways to expand our energy options is to conserve,use more
efficiently,the energy we have.Because most ‘good ’ hydroelectric dam locations
have been utilized and public opposition to dam building has grown,we will not
see many additional new large dames.“Microhydro ” projects might be a feasible
alternative to large dam projects.While we have been using wind power for many
years,there are still
many possible locations
for wind power projects.“The American Wind Energy Association calculates that
wind farms located throughout the Midwest could meet the electrical needs for
the entire country,while the land beneath the turbines could still be used for
farming.” Biomass has many options..Pellet stoves use wood waste. The burning
of wood wastes and the production of methane from sludge are excellent ideas
for electricity
production.
6.The options for
the energy into the twenty-first century are many.In light of global climate
change,moving in the direction of renewable energy sources seems essential.What
is in the way of such and move and what is being done now to move in this
direction?
Many of the policies
implemented in the 1970 ’s that would have reduced greenhouse gas contributions
from energy use have been eliminated and “subsidies and incentives for fossil
fuels and nuclear energy have remained in force.” “The traditional fuel
industry is heavily subsidized by:depletion allowances …,leasing of public
lands at bargain basement prices …,and military support to assure access to oil
in the Middle East.”
“EPA has initiated two
energy efficiency programs:the Energy Star program and the Green Lights
program.” “The Climate Change Technology Initiative is the administration ’s
package of research and development incentives directed toward reducing
greenhouse gas emissions …” “Green power marketing is now feasible,where
customers will be able to buy their electricity from renewable energy sources
or lesspolluting fossil fuel sources such as gas-powered plants.” British
Petroleum and Royal Dutch//Shell have begun programs to cut greenhouse gas
emissions.The developing world is widely adopting renewable energy
technologies –
“’leap-frogging ’ over conventional fossil fuel--based energy technology …” An
excellent option in the United States is to implement a carbon tax,which is “a
tax levied on all fuels according to the amount of
carbon dioxide that is
produced in their consumption.”
1.Risk analysis
is a scientific tool that the EPA is applying to its regulatory work.How is
risk analysis practiced by scientists and employed in policy development?
“(T)here are four steps
in risk analysis:hazard assessment,dose-response assessment,exposure
assessment, and risk characterization.” “Hazard assessment is the process of
examining evidence linking a potential hazard
to its harmful effects.”
The dose--response assessment is used to “show a link between exposure to a
chemical and an ill effect ” and “to analyze the relationship between the
concentrations of the chemicals in the test and both the incidence and severity
of the response in the test animals.” The exposure assessment “involves
identifying human groups
already exposed to the chemical,learning how that exposure cam about,and
calculating the dose and length of time of the exposure.” Risk characterization
pulls “together all the information gathered in the first three steps in order
to determine the risk and its accompanying uncertainties.” EPA takes the
information acquired during risk analysis and determines,using cost-benefit
analysis,risk-
benefit analysis,and/or
public preference,the level of risk that is acceptable and how to regulate that
risk. Those impacted by the regulation,including the general
public,businesses,and non-governmental organizations,all participate in the
process of policy development.
2.The public
often perceives risks differently from experts.What is the significance of risk
perception in policy development?
“If public outrage is
the primary impetus for public policy,some serious risks will get less
attention than they deserve.In particular,risks to the environment are perceived
as much less important than they really are, because of the public ’s
preoccupation with risks to human health.” “This difference of opinion point to
the
importance of risk
communication ,a
task that should not be left to the media.The value of ecosystems and their
connections to human health and welfare need far greater emphasis in the public
consciousness,and this responsibility falls to the scientific and educational
communities as well as to governmental agencies.” “Nonetheless,the public ’s concern
for more than the probabilities of fatalities may have merit.Public outrage
must be
heard,understood,and given a reasonable response.It may not be the best source
of public policy,but it reflects certain values and concerns that could easily
be omitted by and ‘objective ’ risk--assessment.The fact is,subjective
judgments are going to play a role at every step in the risk-assessment
process,from hazard assessment to risk perception to risk management.The
uncertainties involved in risk assessment should remind
us that the process is
only a too – and an imperfect one at best..”
3.The
precautionary principle is now a basis of environmental policy in the
international arena.How does this principle interface with the risk-based
policies of the United States?
The precautionary
principle and risk-based policy making seem to be incompatible.The reality is
that risk- based policy making is not the sole way in which decisions are made
in the United States.We temper risk- based policy decisions with public input.When
people respond to the uncertainty of our knowledge with great concern due to
the severity of the possible adverse consequences of an event,they insert the
precautionary
principle into
risk-based decision making.“The use of risk assessment has come under attack in
recent year, movement toward employing the precautionary principle in formulating public
policy to protect the environment and human health.”
1.As new and more
effective pesticides,such as DDT,were employed,some serious problems began to
appear. What are the problems resulting from the use of chemical pesticides?
Problems resulting from
the use of chemical pesticides include the development of resistance by pests,
resurgence and secondary pest outbreaks,and adverse environmental and human
health effects.
2.There are
alternatives to using pesticides to control pests.How well do alternative
control methods work?
These methods work very
well.We have nearly eliminated water-borne diseases in the developed world by
cultural controls – sewage and drinking water treatment..Washing and combing
hair,bathing and wearing clean clothes have eliminated head and body
lice,fleas,and other parasites.Washing bed linens have eliminated bed
bugs.Sealing cracks in homes,window screens,and bagging and properly disposing
of garbage have eliminated or reduced roaches,mice,flies,mosquitoes and other
common pests.Food sanitation,including canning,refrigeration,freezing and
drying,have eliminated many organisms that spoil food.Various effective cultural
controls for lawns,gardens and crops are also available. Control by natural
enemies is effective when a natural enemy can be found.Breeding disease
resistant crops have saved our corn,potato,wheat and other grain production
from devastation by plant diseases.
3.Biotechnology
has revolutionized many biological applications.How does biotechnology add to
the battery of genetic methods to control pests?
Biotechnology “makes it
possible to introduce genes into crop plants from a variety of sources:other
plant species,bacteria,and viruses.” To increase a plant ’s resistance to a
virus,the virus ’s protein coat is incorporated into the plant ’s genes,making
the plant resistant to infection by the virus.To decrease plant susceptibility
to a variety of insects,Bt has incorporated into plant genes;the plant produces
the Bt toxin,which kills the larvae of a number of a number of insects when the
larvae eats the plant.
4.Integrated pest
management is an important way to reduce pesticide use.What is integrated pest
management, and how has it worked?
“Integrated pest
management aims to minimize the use of synthetic organic pesticides without
jeopardizing crops.This is made possible by addressing all the interacting
sociological,economic,and ecological factors involved in protection crops.With
IPM,the crop and pests are seen as part of a dynamic ecosystem;the goal is not
the eradication of pests,but maintaining crop damage below the economic
threshold.” “Cultural and biological control practices from the core of IPM
techniques.Such practices as crop rotation, polyculture,the destruction of crop
residues,the maintenance of predator populations,and carefully times planting
and fertilizing are basic to IPM.” Field scouts monitor pest populations to
determine if//when pests exceed the economic threshold.If this
occurs,pesticides that will do the least harm to natural enemies may be
used.
5.Public policy
for controlling pesticides has been revised.What are the objectives of current
policy and how do the correct past problems?
The current public
policy for controlling pesticide use can be found in the Food Quality
Protection Act of 1996 (FQPA).“The following are the major requirements of the
act:
a.The new safety
standard is “a reasonable certainty of no harm ” for substances applied to
food..
b.Special consideration
must be given to the exposure of young children to pesticide residues.
c.Pesticides or other
chemicals are prohibited if they can be shown to carry a risk of more than one
case of cancer per million people when consumed at average levels over the
course of a lifetime.
d.All possible sources
of exposure to a given pesticide must be evaluated,not just from food.
e.A special attempt must
be made to assess the potential harmful effects of the so-called “hormone
disrupters ”.
One problem correct by
FQPA was the different standards applied to raw and processed food.Processed
food could have no detectable levels of suspected cancer-causing substances
(the Delaney clause).The detection limits for chemical were getting smaller and
smaller,triggering the Delaney clause,yet there was little scientific evidence
that such small quantities of suspected carcinogens were a health
hazard.Another problem corrected by FQPA was to change the focus for standard
setting from the typical 70-kg man to the most susceptible population –
children..Additionally,all exposures not have to be considered when setting
exposure limits.If a pesticide is found in your drinking water,the exposure
limit for the amount allowed in food has to take this into consideration.
1.Water pollution
is the human-cause addition of any material in amounts that cause undesired
alterations to the water.What are some point and non-point sources of water
pollution?
“Point sources involve
the discharge of substances from factories,sewage systems,power plants,
underground coal mines,and oil wells.These sources are relatively easy to
identify,and therefore are easier to monitor and regulate.Nonpoint
sources...are poorly defined and scattered over broad areas.Pollution occurs as
rainfall and snowmelt move over and through the ground,picking up pollutants as
the go.Some of the most
prominent nonpoint
sources are agricultural runoff (from farm animals and cropland),storm water
drainage (from streets,parking lots and lawns,and atmospheric deposition (from
air pollutants washed to earth or deposited as dry particles.”
2.Waterborne
disease,organic wastes,chemical pollutants,sediments and nutrients are the most
important types of water pollutants.How do these reach the water,and what are
their basic impacts?
Waterborne disease
reaches water through animal (including human)wastes being discharged to land
or water;the basic impact is disease.Human and animal wastes reach water by
either direct discharge or runoff from land;the basic impact is the addition of
nutrients and disease to water.Chemicals pollutant water by either direct
discharge to water or runoff from land;the basic impacts are rendering “water
unpalatable for
humans and dangerous for
aquatic life.” Sediments reach water as a result of erosion;;the basic impact
is to increase turbidity and increase the nutrient load.Nutrients such as
phosphorus and nitrogen are added to water by direct discharge from sewage
treatment plants and by runoff from agricultural land after the application of
fertilizer;the basic impact of nutrient pollution is eutrophication.
3.Eutrophication
refers to the ecosystem changes that occur with nutrient enrichment.Describe
these changes, including the depletion of dissolved oxygen,and why they occur.
“As the water of an
oligotrophic body is enriched with nutrients,numerous changes are set in
motion. First,the nutrient enrichment allows the rapid growth and
multiplication of phytoplankton,causing increasing turbidity of the water.The
increasing turbidity shades out the submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV).With the
die-off of SAV there is an obvious loss of food,habitat,and dissolved oxygen
from their photosynthesis.”
“Phytoplankton soon
reach a maximum population density,and continuing growth and reproduction are
balanced by die-off.Dead phytoplankton settle out,resulting in heavy deposits
of detritus on the bottom.In turn,the abundance of detritus supports and
abundance of decomposers,mainly bacteria.The explosive growth
of bacteria creates an
additional demand for dissolved oxygen as they consume oxygen in their
respiration. The result is the depletion of dissolved oxygen with the
consequent suffocation of the fish and shellfish.”
4.Although it is
possible to treat the symptoms of eutrophication,long-term control will depend
on reducing inputs of nutrients and sediments.How can this best be
accomplished?
“The first step is to
identify the major point and nonpoint sources of nutrients and sediments.Then
it is a matter of developing and implementing strategies for correction.Which
source of factor is most significant will depend on the human population and
the land uses within the particular watershed.Therefore,each watershed
must be analyzed as a
separate entity,and appropriate measures must be taken to reduce the nutrients
and sediments exiting from that watershed.” Generally,,to control
eutrophication in freshwater systems it is necessary to control the input of
phosphorus while “in marine systems the limiting nutrient is most commonly
nitrogen.”
5.Modern societies
employ a system of sewers and wastewater treatment plants to deal with human
and domestic wastes.Describe the technologies of primary and secondary
treatment,and biological nutrient removal .
Primary water treatment
removes particulate organic matter.The water “flows very slowly through large
tanks called primary clarifiers.Because it flows slowly through these tanks,the
water is nearly motionless for several hours.The particulate organic
material,about 30%to 50%of the total organic material,settles to the
bottom,from where it can
be removed.At the same time,fatty or oil material floats to the top,where it is
skimmed from the surface.” Secondary treatment removes colloidal and dissolved
organic matter.“Secondary treatment is also called
biological treatment
because it makes use of organisms – natural decomposers and detritus
feeders..Basically, an environment is created to enable these organisms to feed
on the colloidal and dissolved organic material and break it down to carbon
dioxide and water via their cell respiration.”
Biological nutrient
removal removes dissolved inorganic matter.“Various bacteria (are used
to)convert nutrient form of nitrogen back to nonnutritive nitrogen gas.”
“Bacteria (are used to)take up phosphate from solution and store it in their
bodies.” The bacteria are removed as part of the raw sludge..
6.Sewage sludge
is a byproduct of cleaning the water.How can sludges be treated and converted
into useful products?
“Several methods for
treating sludge and converting it into organic fertilizer are commonly used:1)
anaerobic digestion,2)composting,and 3)pasteurization.”
7.The Clean Water
Act of 1972 is the landmark legislation establishing public policy with respect
to water pollution.Describe both the act ’s accomplishments,and the problems
that were encountered in reauthorizing the Act.
“Much progress has been
made in the 27 years since the enactment of the Clean Water Act.The number of
people in the US served by adequate sewage treatment plants has more than
doubled,from 85 million to 173 million.Soil erosion has been reduced by one
billion tons annually.And two-thirds of the nation'’ waterways are safe for
fishing and swimming,a doubling over the 1972 situation.Many of the nations
most heavily used
rivers,lakes and bays have
been cleaned up and restored.” “Fish now swim in rivers once so polluted that
only bacteria and sludge worms could survive.Significantly,a 70%increase in
bottom vegetation has been achieved since the mid-1980s in the Chesapeake Bay.”
Problems in reauthorizing
the act include debates “over whether requirements should be strengthened or
weakened,whether additional mandates should be subjected to a cost/benefit
analysis,and whether regulatory relief should be provided to
industries,states,cities,and individuals who are required to take actions to
comply
with the regulations.”
1.Two hundred and
ten million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW)are disposed of annually in the
United States.What are the components of MSW,and how is this waste handled?
MSW consists of
paper,yard wastes,food wastes,plastics metal,glass,and wood.“(T)he proportions
vary greatly depending on the generator,the neighborhood and the time of year.”
MSW is buried in landfills ((56%), recovered for recycling and composting
(27%)and burned in incinerators (17%).
2.Fifty-five
percent of MSW is disposed of in landfills.What are the problems with
landfills,and how are these addressed in newer landfill sites?
There are four problems
with landfills:leachate generation and groundwater contamination,methane
production,incomplete decomposition,and settling.Newer landfills are built with
leachate collection systems and groundwater monitoring wells are installed so
that continuous monitoring of ground water will occur. Methane collection
systems are being installed as a standard part of the landfill.To improve the
cost
effectiveness of methane
collection systems,decomposition rates are increased by adding moisture.Two
additional benefits to speeding decomposition are that leachate production does
not continue for the same length of time and more rapid settling.If
decomposition rates are increased more material can be buried in the same
location because decomposed material occupies less space.
3.Seventeen
percent of MSW is combusted,mostly in waste-to-energy (WTE)combustion
facilities.What are the advantages and disadvantages of WTE combustion?
The advantages of WTE
facilities include reducing trash weight “by over 70%and volume by 90%”,
concentrating toxic or hazardous substances into two streams of ash,eliminating
the need to change “trash collection procedures or people ’s behavior ”,and
generating electricity. The disadvantages include MSW not burning cleanly,cost
to build the WTE facility,hazardous characteristics of the ash,options for MSW
reduced,and resource and energy loss.
4.The solution to
solid waste problems is to reduce waste at its source.How can the total volume
of refuse be reduced?
Changes in the resources
used in the manufacture of goods,the durability of consumer goods,how we
package consumer items,how we use consumer items,the types of consumer item
purchased and the quantity of items purchased can all reduce waste at its
source.Many changes in the quantity of materials used in the manufacture of
consumer items have occurred in recent years.For years,the computer has been
cited as a
resource that will allow
us to consume less paper.Using products longer,e.g.reusable bottles,is an under
utilized way of reducing waste at its source.While deposit legislation has not
increased the use of reusable bottles,bottle deposits have increased the
quantity of aluminum and plastic recycling.Rather than throwing away
items,resale is a good idea.Removing your name from junk mail lists also
reduces waste at its source.
5.More than 75%of
MSW is recyclable.What role is recycling playing in waste management,and how is
recycling best promoted?
Recycling is diverting
resources from landfills.At the same time that resources are being saved,energy
is being conserved.For example,it takes less energy to manufacture paper from
paper than from tree pulp. Recycling is best promoted when (1)there are “direct
charges for general trash (collection)and no charged
for recycled goods
”,(2)recycling is mandatory,not optional,(3)residential recycling is (at
your)curbside,(4) pick up of recyclables is weekly,(5)“recycling goals are
clear,challenging and feasible ”,(6)“a concerted effort is made to involve
local industries,and (7)“the municipality employs an experienced and committed
recycling coordinator.”
6.Although most
management of MSW occurs at the local level,federal regulations concerning MSW
are increasing.What regulations have affected the management of municipal solid
waste?
In 1965 Congress passed
the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 giving financial and technical
jurisdiction over solid waste to the Bureau of Solid Waste Management.In 1970
the Resource Recovery Act moved jurisdiction to EPA and “directed attention to
recycling programs and other ways of recovery resources in
MSW.” The Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act ((RCRA)of 1976 created a “command and control approach to
MSW,as the EPA was given power to close local dumps and set regulations for
landfills. Combustion facilities were covered by air pollution and hazardous
waste regulations.” “RCRA also required the states to develop comprehensive
solid waste management plans.” “The Superfund Act of 1980 addressed
abandoned hazardous
waste sites throughout the country,many of which (41%)are old landfills.” “The
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 gave EPA greater responsibility to
set solid waste criteria for all hazardous waste facilities.”
7.Much more can
be done to move MSW management in a more sustainable direction.What are some
recommendations to improve MSW management?
Integrated waste
management is “a system having several alternatives in operation at the same
time.” Waste reduction would reduce the quantity of material needing to be
handled by any waste management system. Ending the subsidies for trash
collection and disposal would encourage people to reduce,reuse and recycle
resources.A “policy for
bringing about waste reduction would be to establish a program of extended
product responsibility,a concept that involves assigning some responsibility
for reducing the environmental impact of a product at each stage of its “life
cycle,” but especially at the end..” An example of a manufacturer being
responsible for a product for its complete lifecycle is the program whereby you
can return spent copier cartridges to the manufacturer and the manufacturer
then recycles the cartridge.
Recycling and reuse are
essential components of any MSW management plan.Manufacturing good with greater
durability and ease of repair would reduce the need for disposal or
recycling.We have laws mandating
the removal of solid
waste from our residence for public health and safety.Mandatory recycling laws
could be justified for similar reasons – reduced air and water pollution from
disposal,,reduced air and water pollution
from mining and
manufacturing,etc. Improving how we disposal of waste needs to occur along with
the reducing the quantity of waste generated and increasing recycling
rates.Landfills can be developed that increase the rate of decomposition,
allowing for increased
capture of methane gas and easing our ability to manage leachate and
settling.WTE combustion facilities are useful for wastes that cannot be
recycled.
1.Toxicology is
the study of the harmful effects of chemical on human health.How do
toxicologists do their work?
“In investigating a
suspected chemical,a toxicologist would conduct animal tests,investigate human
involvement with the chemical and present the information linking the dose (the
level of exposure multiplied by the length of time of which exposure occurs)with
the response (some acute or chronic effect or the development of tumors).”
Toxicologists may also use cell cultures to study mutagenicity,,carcinogenicity
or
endocrine activity.Data
from epidemiological studies will also be utilized if available.The overall
goal is to link the quantity of exposure to the degree of response to a
specified outcome.The outcome can be a measure of morbidity
(nausea,edema,headache,tremor)or mortality (immediate or delayed).
2.Hazardous
materials (HAZMATs)are chemicals that present a hazard or risk.What does the
Toxic Release Inventory tell us about the extent of the release of hazardous
chemicals?Why are heavy metals and synthetic organic compound the most
notorious hazardous chemicals?
The Toxic Release
Inventory (TRI)tells us that in 1998 628,000 tons of toxic chemicals were
released into the air;that 112,000 tones of toxic chemicals were released into
water and that total environmental releases equaled 1,247,000 tons.“The good
news is that over the 10 years since the TRI has been in effect,the quantities
of virtually all categories of toxic waste keep going down;the total release
declined by 45%during that time.” Heavy metals and synthetic organic compounds
are two categories of chemicals that present the
worst toxic hazard
because these “two major classes of chemicals … do not readily degrade in the
environment.” Because many heavy metals and synthetic organic compound are not
biodegradable,,they are able to bioaccumulate.
3.Before 1970
chemical wastes were disposed of indiscriminately.What were the consequences of
unregulated disposal of such wastes?
The Clean Air and Clean
Water Acts eliminated the indiscriminate disposal of hazardous materials to air
and water but land disposal was left unregulated.As a result,hazardous waste
was indiscriminately disposed of on land.The result was groundwater
contamination and the destruction of the soil ecosystem.Midnight dumping and
orphan sites became a problem.
4.One of the most
daunting tasks our society faces is cleaning up the thousands of existing toxic
waste sites.How
does the
Superfund Act of 1980 address this task? Superfund,“through a tax on chemical raw
materials,…provides a fund for the identification of abandoned
chemical waste
sites,protection of groundwater near the site,remediation of groundwater if it
has been
contaminated,and cleanup
of the site.”
5.A number of
laws have been passed to protect the public and the environment from present
toxic wastes.Whatrole do the Clean air Act,the Clean Water Act,RCRA,EPCRA,and
TSCA play in accomplishing this
objective?
The Clean Air and Clean
Water Acts limit the discharge of wastes into air and water.RCRA regulates the
land disposal of hazardous waste.All disposal facilities must be
permitted,“toxic wastes destined for landfills (are required to be)pretreated
to convert them to forms that will not leach ”,and all hazardous waste must be
tracked from “cradle-to-grave.” “EPCRA requires companies that handle in excess
of 5 tons of any hazardous
material to provide a
‘complete accounting ’ of storage sites,,feed hoppers,and so on.This
information goes toa Local Emergency Planning Committee,one of which is also
required in every governmental jurisdiction.”The Local Emergency Planning
Committee “is then to draw up scenarios for possible accidents involving
thechemicals on site and have a contingency plan for every case.” “TSCA
requires that before manufacturing a
new chemical in
bulk,manufacturers must submit a ‘premanufacturing report ’ to the EPA in which
theenvironmental impacts of the substance are assessed,including those that may
derive from its ultimate disposal, and it is indicated whether is it’s a
carcinogen.Depending on the results of assessment,uses may be restricted ora
product may be kept off the market altogether.”
1.The atmosphere
is the site and source of our weather.How is the atmosphere structured,and how
does it function to bring us the major features of our weather?
“The atmosphere is a
collection of gases that gravity holds in a thin envelope around the Earth.The
gases within the troposphere are responsible for moderating the flow of energy
to Earth.” “The lowest layer,the troposphere,extends up to 10 miles in the
tropics and 5 miles in high latitudes.This layer contains practically all the
water vapor and clouds;it is the site and source of our weather.” There are
several other layers in the atmosphere;they are the stratosphere,mesosphere,and
the thermosphere. The troposphere is where our weather begins.The troposphere
is warmest near the surface of the earth and
coolest where it meets
the stratosphere (at the tropopause).This temperature gradient creates the
conditions for convection currents.Hot air rises (and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics rules).“The atmosphere-ocean systems (can be thought of)as an
enormous weather engine,fueled by the sun and strongly affected by the rotation
of Earth.Solar radiation enters the atmosphere ” and “some is reflected by
clouds and earth ’s surfaces, but most is absorbed by the atmosphere,oceans and
land,which are heated in the process.The land and oceans can then radiate some
of their heat back upward.” “Some of the back-radiated heat is transferred to
the atmosphere.Thus,air masses will become warmer at the surface of the earth
and will tend to expand,becoming
lighter.This lighter air
will rise.” “Air must flow to replace the rising warm air,and this leads to …
wind..” “The larger scale air movements of the Hadley Cells are influenced by
Earth ’s rotation from west to east.Thus we have the trade winds of the oceans,and
the general flow of weather from west to east.”
2.There are ways
of investigating the past to reveal features of past climates.What does the
past tell us about climate change?
“Climate is far from
constant.” “Some work done quite recently on ice cores has provided us with …
evidence that remarkable changes can occur in the climate within as little as a
few decades.”
3.The oceans and
atmosphere are closely linked in creating climate.What is the ocean
Conveyor,and how could the functioning of this system change to bring about a
major climate change?
“Salty (warm)water from the Gulf Stream moves northward on the surface and is
cooled ” as it reaches the Arctic.As water cools,it sinks because water
increases in density as it cools (but its density decreases again when
frozen).This cool water flows south “through the Atlantic,to the southern tip
of Africa,where it is joined by cold Antarctic waters and spreads northward
into the Indian and Pacific Oceans as deep currents.The
currents gradually slow
down and warm (because the atmosphere is warmer),becoming less dense and
welling up to the surface,where they are further warmed and begin a movement of
surface waters back again towards the north Atlantic.”
The movement of heat by
the ocean Conveyor is the reason why Europe (and Australia?)is warmer than its
latitude would suggest.
If a large quantity of
fresh water in the north Atlantic appeared,the overall density of water in the
North Atlantic would diminish resulting in less water sinking.“Evidence
indicates that the (invasion of icebergs into the North Atlantic)coincided with
rapid cooling events … and suggests that the Conveyor system shifted
southward,with deep
water forming near Bermuda instead of Greenland.When this occurred,a major
climate cooling happened with a few decades.”
4.The interaction
of solar radiation with atmospheric gases controls the balance of warming and
cooling of Earth.How have atmospheric gases from human activities affected this
balance?
Human activities have
resulted in an increase in a variety of greenhouse gases.The level of carbon
dioxide is increasing from 0.8 to 1.7 ppm per year and levels are “35%higher
(today)than they were before the Industrial Revolution.” Humans have also
increased the level of methane ((due to the number of cattle being
produced),nitrous oxide (from biomass burning and chemical fertilizer use)and
CFCs and other halocarbons.
5.Greenhouse
gases are increasing in the troposphere.What is the probability that these
gases will bring on global warming?If it occurs,what will be the major effects
of global warming?
We are not certain that
the increased quantities of greenhouse gases will result in global warming but
there is a “strong probability that as levels of greenhouse gases increase in
the troposphere,global temperatures will
… rise and the climate
will undergo major changes..”
“The projections
indicate that if the concentrations of greenhouse gases were to double,Earth
would warm up between 1.5 o
and 4.5 o C.” “Rising global
temperatures are linked to two major impacts:regional climatic changes and a
risk in sea level.” “Warming will seriously affect rainfall and agriculture.”
“Another expected
impact of global warming
is weather change.The following changes have already been observed:1)Winters in
Europe have been warmer and wetter during the last decade ”,2)“El Nino events
are becoming more frequent and more intense;3)Thunderstorms,windstorms and
hurricanes have been more frequent and more sever e.”
6.Global warming
poses a serious threat to thee world ’s climate.How have countries of the world
responded to the threat?
At the 1992 United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development,the heads of the world ’s
nations signed the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC).“This
convention agreed to aim at reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by
the year 2000,but countries were to achieve this goal by voluntary means.”
“Prompted by a coalition of island nations,the third Conference of Parties to
the FCCC met in Kyoto,Japan,in December 1997,to craft a binding agreement on
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.” “Thirty-eight industrialized countries
agreed to reduce emission of six greenhouse gases below 1990 level,to be
achieved by 2010.” “The developing countries refused to agree to any
reductions,arguing that the developed countries had created the problem,and
that it was only fair that they continue on their path to development as
the developed countries
did,energized by fossil fuels.Each country must ratify the accord,which
signifies compliance;in the US,this is far from easy.”
7.The
stratospheric ozone shield is vital in protection life from damaging
ultraviolet radiation.How is ozone formed and destroyed in the stratosphere?
Ozone is formed by
high-energy UV radiation splitting apart molecular oxygen into free oxygen
atoms and then the free oxygen atoms combining with molecular oxygen.Not all
the free oxygen reacts with molecular oxygen.Some of the free oxygen can react
with ozone,thus forming two oxygen molecules.A dynamic balance is formed between
the quantity of ozone,molecular oxygen and atomic oxygen as a result of the
cycle
of continual formation
and destruction of molecular oxygen and ozone.Because of the seasonal changes
in the quantity of UV radiation,the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere
varies with the variation being the least at the equator and increasing at
higher latitudes.Additionally,the concentration of ozone will be the highest in
the equatorial region
and the lowest in the Polar Regions.
8.Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)and other gases destroy stratospheric ozone.What evidence confirmed these
destructive processes? Rowland and Molina in 1974 “reasoned that,although CFCs
would be stable in the troposphere,in the stratosphere they would be subjected
to intense UV radiation,which would break them apart.” All the chlorine in a
CFC molecule would be released and the free chlorine atoms would react with
ozone to form chlorine monoxide and molecular oxygen.When two chlorine monoxide
molecules react,the chlorine atoms are released so that the can attack more
ozone molecules.“In the fall of 1985,some British atmospheric scientists
working in Antarctica reported a gaping “hole ” ((actually a thinning of one
area)in the stratospheric ozone layer over the South Pole.” We have continued
to measure the level of ozone in stratosphere over the Antarctic and over the Arctic,demonstrating diminished
levels of ozone coinciding with expected seasonal variations.
9.Continued ozone
destruction represents a threat to life on Earth.What is the community doing
about slowing or reversing ozone loss?
The Montreal
Protocol,which requires the scaling back of CFC production by 50%by 2000,has
140 countries as signatures.An 1990 amendment to the agreement requires the
“participating nations … completely phase out the major chemicals destroying
the ozone layer,by 2000 in developed countries and by 2010 in developing
countries.In 1992 another amendment was adopted to complete the phaseout of
CFCs by 1995 and shorten the phaseout of all suspected ozone depleting halogens.In
the United States,the major CFC producer, du Pont Chemical Company,has opposed
legislation to terminate US compliance with the CFC banning protocols.CFCs are
no longer produced and the other ozone depleting chemicals are being
eliminated.
Chapter Twenty-Two-
1.Understanding air
pollution begins with understanding normal atmospheric function.How is the
atmosphere
normally cleansed?
There are mechanisms in
the biosphere that remove,assimilate,and recycle ” natural pollutants..Natural
pollutants include volatile organic compounds from plants and gases and
particles from volcanoes,fires and dust storms.The first mechanism is
dilute;the pollutants disperse into the atmosphere.Another mechanism is natural
chemical reactions.Hydroxyl radicals oxidize many pollutants into harmless
substances that are removed from the atmosphere by precipitation.Soil
microorganisms continue to degrade the substances that are precipitated.
Dilution of anthropogenic compounds occurs when the level of pollutant is
low.The hydroxyl radical will also remove anthropogenic compounds from the
atmosphere but the levels of pollutants from human activities
frequently exceed the
ability of the hydroxyl radical to remove them.Hydroxyl radicals are consumed
in the reaction process with pollutants,resulting in the pollutant level
increasing once the hydroxyl radicals are gone. Hydroxyl radicals remove some
anthropogenic pollutants,e.g.,hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides,more easily than
other anthropogenic pollutants,e.g.,carbon monoxide.
2.Ever since the
Industrial Revolution,unhealthy smogs have plagued human cities.How are
industrial and photochemical smogs generated?
Industrial smog is
typically generated by the use of coal and occurs in cold cloudy areas.It is an
“irritating, grayish mixture of soot,sulfurous compounds and water vapor.”
Photochemical smog is typically generated by the burning of gasoline in the
internal combustion engine.Local weather conditions are usually warm and
sunny.Automobile exhaust,nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds,react
with sunlight to create
photochemical smog.
3.The variety and
effects of the major air pollutants have been identified.What are the eight
major
air pollutants
and their most serious effects?
Suspended
particulate matter (SPM):SPM impair respiratory function.Volatile organic
compounds (VOC):VOC
are important to the formation of ozone,which is a respiratory irritant.Carbon monoxide
(CO):
CO binds strong to
hemoglobin,blocking the delivery of oxygen to cells.Death can result from high
or prolonged exposure.Nitrogen
oxides (NOx):NOx is a respiratory
irritant and the precursor to acid precipitation in the form of nitric acid.Sulfur oxides (SOx):SOx is a poison,a
respiratory irritant and the precursor to acid precipitation in the form of sulfuric
acid.Lead
and other heavy metals:Lead and other heavy metals,e.g.,
mercury,can cause brain
damage and death.Lead is dangerous at very low concentration;data indicate
decreased intelligence test scores result from low level exposures.Ozone and other photochemical
oxidants: Ozone
is a respiratory irritant.Air toxics and radon:Many of the air toxic chemicals and radon
are suspected
human carcinogens.
4.Much is known now
about the origins and chemistry of air pollutants.Where do primary
pollutants originate,and
how do they form secondary pollutants?
Primary pollutants are
directly produced by combustion and evaporation.If a primary pollutant
undergoes reactions in the atmosphere the resulting compound is a secondary
pollutant. Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed as a result of a reaction
between nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds with sunlight as the
energy source to run the reaction.Other photochemical oxidants (aldehydes,
ketones,PAN)are formed under the same conditions as ozone.Sulfur and nitric
acids are also secondary pollutants.These chemicals are formed when sulfur
dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with “atmospheric moisture and oxidants such
as hydroxyl.”
5.Acid deposition
impacts natural ecosystems as well as industrial centers.What is acid
deposition, and what are its most significant effects on the environment?
Acid deposition is any
precipitation or dry particle fallout with a pH less than normal.Acid
deposition changes the pH of aquatic ecosystem.pH is limiting
factor;therefore,aquatic organisms may be severely stressed or die if the pH is
changed.Certain toxic heavy metals are more bioavailable under acidic
conditions. A substantial number of lakes are devoid of life as a result of
acid precipitation.Forest die-off is also possible.
Acid precipitation
initially stimulates growth by increasing the availability of nitrogen and
sulfur.As soil acidity increases,many nutrients are leached beyond the reach of
the plant roots and toxic heavy metals become bioavailable.Tree growth then
declines and die-off begins.A shift in the types of species also can occur,
changing or reducing biodiversity.Human artifacts are also
impacted.Bridges,buildings,and statues are being dissolved by acid
precipitation.Human health may be impacted if toxic heavy metals concentrations
in drinking water increase due to greater water acidity.
6.Public policy now
identifies standards for air pollutants based on their impacts on human health.
What are the existing United States air pollution standards?
PM10:50 µă /m 3 /year or 150 µg/m 3 /24 hours;PM2.5:15 µg/m
3 /year or 65 µg/m 3 /24 hours;Sulfur dioxide: 0.03 ppm/year,0.14
ppm/24 hours or 0.5 ppm/3 hours;Carbon monoxide:9 ppm/8 hours or 35 ppm/hour;
Nitrogen oxides:0.05 ppm/year;ozone:0.08 ppm/8 hours and lead:1.5 mg/m 3 /3 months.
7.The most recent
legislation addressing air pollution is the Clean Air Act of 1990.What are the
main provisions
of this act,and how are they related to earlier legislation?
The Clean Air Act of
1990 mandated each state to develop a State Implementation Plan (SIP)“that must
go through a process of public comment ”.“The SIP is designed to reduce
emissions of every National Ambient Air Quality Standard pollutant whose
control standard has not been attained.” “Polluters must apply for a permit
that identifies the kinds of pollutants they release,the quantities of those
pollutants,and the steps they
are taking to reduce
pollution.” A new standard for particulates has been added;;particulate matter
less than 2.5 microns in diameter is a focus because this size particulate is
considered to be a health hazard.The Clean Air Act of 1990 also tightens
emissions standards and included provisions to “encourage the development and
use
of cleaner burning
fuels.” Toxic air pollutants were identified and the EPA has been directed to
“develop maximum achievable control technology standards ” for these
pollutants..
8.Coping with acid
deposition requires both technology and political change.What is being done in
the United States to reduce acid deposition?
“By the year 2000,total
sulfur dioxide emissions must be reduced 10 million tons below 1980 levels.”
“Nitrogen dioxide emissions must be reduced by 2 million tons by the year
2000.” “The utilities are required to
install equipment that
closely monitors their emissions of acid-generating gases.” “Each plant is
granted emission allowances based on formulas in legislation.The penalty for
exceeding these allowances is severe.” If a utility emits less than its
allowance,it can sell the “extra ” emission to another utility..“New utilities
will not receive allowances;they must buy into the system by purchasing
existing allowances.”
9.Further
improvements in air quality may require rethinking how we structure our
society.What
further steps
could be taken to improve air quality and our way of life?
Increased fuel
efficiency would decrease the quantity of air pollutants produced per
mile.Decreasing the quantity of contaminants,e.g.,sulfur,in gasoline would
reduce the amount of pollution produced per mile driven.Increasing the quantity
of alternative fuel vehicles,e.g.,electric,natural gas,or fuel cell,would
decrease the quantity of pollution.[One needs to think about how electricity is
produced before advocating
electric
vehicles.Otherwise the source of pollution is changed,not the quantity.]
Subsidizing and improving mass transit,building communities designed for
walking,biking,and mass transit rather than the automobile, and increasing the
ability to tele-commute would all help to decrease air pollution and improve
our way of life.
1.Environmental
public policy includes laws and agency-enforced regulations that deal with a
society ’s interactions with the environment.How necessary are environmental
public policies?
Environmental public policies
are necessary because “human societies and their economic activities have the
potential for doing great damage to the environment,and that damage has direct
impact on present and future human welfare.”
2.Economic
systems are social and legal arrangements people make in order to satisfy their
needs and wants. What are the two basic kinds of economic systems,and how do
they differ?
The two basic kinds of
economic systems are centrally planned economies and free market economies.The
two economic systems “differ mostly in how economic decisions are made.In a
pure centrally planned economy,the ruling class makes all the basic decisions
of what will be produced,how much,where,and by whom.” “In the pure free market
economy,the market itself determines what will be exchanged.” “The whole
system is in private
hands,and is driven by the desire of people and businesses to acquire
goods,services and wealth as they act in their self-interest.” Neither of the
economic systems actually exists as described..
3.The wealth of a
nation is the resources a country draws on to establish and maintain an
economy.What are the three components of a nation ’s wealth,and how do the
world ’s nations compare in wealth as measured with these components?
The three components of
a nation ’s wealth are produced assets,natural capital and human resources.
According to the World Bank the wealthiest regions in the world are North
America and the region encompassing Japan,Australia,New Zealand and the
Republic of Korea and the poorest regions are South Asia and West Africa (Table
23-2).
4.Environmental
public policy appears in response to specific problems and needs.How is
environmental public policy developed in modern societies?
The typical life cycle
of environmental public policy development has four stages.The stages are
recognition,formulation,implementation,and control.Recognition is the process
through which the early perceptions of an environmental problem occur and a
great deal of dissension exists.Formulation is the stage where the political
weight of those who perceive a problem is increasing.“The public is …
aroused,,and debate
about policy options
occurs in the corridors of power.” “Policy makers consider what may be called
the ‘Three E ’s ’ of environmental public policy::effectiveness,efficiency and
equity.” The implementation stage is “where … real political and economic costs
are exacted..The policy has been determined,and the focal point moves to a
regulatory agency.” The control stage is the final stage..“Years have passed since
the early days of
recognition.” “Problems
are rarely completely resolved,but the environment is improving as things are
moving in the right direction.”
5.It is argued
that many environmental regulations are too costly.Do the economic effects of
environmental public policy outweigh the costs?
“Some policies have
relatively little or no direct monetary costs.” These policies remove subsidies
to special interests and restrict or deny access to national resources.“Most
environmental policies involve some very real costs that must be paid by some
segment of society.” “In general,states with the strictest environmental
regulations also had the highest rates of job growth and economic
performance.Nations with the highest environmental standards also had the most
robust economies and rates of job creation.” “Only 0.1%of job layoffs were
attributed by employers to environment-related
causes.” “In summary,we
can draw several conclusions from our examination of the impact of
environmental policy on the economy:Environmental public policy does not
diminish the wealth of a nation;rather it transfers wealth from polluters to
pollution controllers and to less polluting companies.The ‘environmental
protection
industry ’ is a major job--creating,profit-making,sales-generating industry.The argument that environmental protection is bad for the economy is simply unsound:Not only is it good for the economy,but environmental public policy is responsible for a less haz